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Do Animal Like Protists Have Cell Walls

Written By Tuesday, April 26, 2022 Add Comment Edit

Eukaryotic organisms that are neither animals, plants nor fungi

Protist

Temporal range:

Paleoproterozoic[a] – Present

Pha.

Proterozoic

Archean

Had'n

Protist collage 2.jpg
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Groups included

Supergroups[i] and typical phyla

  • Archaeplastida (in part)
    • Rhodophyta (crimson algae)
    • Glaucophyta
  • SAR
    • Stramenopiles (brown algae, diatoms, oomycetes, ...)
    • Alveolata
      • Apicomplexa
      • Ciliophora
      • Dinoflagellata
    • Rhizaria
      • Cercozoa
      • Foraminifera
      • Radiolaria
  • Excavata
    • Euglenozoa
    • Percolozoa
    • Metamonada
  • Amoebozoa
  • Hacrobia
  • Hemimastigophora
  • Apusozoa
  • Opisthokonta (in part)
    • Choanozoa

Many others;
classification varies

Cladistically included but traditionally excluded taxa
  • Animalia
  • Fungi
  • Plantae

A protist () is whatsoever eukaryotic organism (that is, an organism whose cells contain a prison cell nucleus) that is non an brute, establish, or mucus. While it is probable that protists share a mutual antecedent (the last eukaryotic common antecedent),[two] the exclusion of other eukaryotes means that protists do not form a natural group, or clade.[a] Therefore, some protists may be more closely related to animals, plants, or fungi than they are to other protists; still, similar the groups algae, invertebrates, and protozoans, the biological category protist is used for convenience. Others classify any unicellular eukaryotic microorganism as a protist.[three] The written report of protists is termed protistology.[four]

History [edit]

The nomenclature of a third kingdom separate from animals and plants was commencement proposed by John Hogg in 1860 as the kingdom Protoctista; in 1866 Ernst Haeckel also proposed a third kingdom Protista equally "the kingdom of primitive forms".[5] Originally these also included prokaryotes, only with time[ when? ] these were removed to a fourth kingdom Monera.[b]

In the popular five-kingdom scheme proposed by Robert Whittaker in 1969, Protista was defined as eukaryotic "organisms which are unicellular or unicellular-colonial and which course no tissues", and the 5th kingdom Fungi was established.[6] [7] [c] In the five-kingdom system of Lynn Margulis, the term protist is reserved for microscopic organisms, while the more inclusive kingdom Protoctista (or protoctists) included certain large multicellular eukaryotes, such as kelp, cherry-red algae, and slime molds.[10] Some use the term protist interchangeably with Margulis's protoctist, to comprehend both unmarried-celled and multicellular eukaryotes, including those that grade specialized tissues merely practice not fit into any of the other traditional kingdoms.[xi]

Description [edit]

Besides their relatively unproblematic levels of organization, protists exercise not necessarily have much in common.[12] When used, the term "protists" is now considered to mean a paraphyletic assemblage of similar-appearing but various taxa (biological groups); these taxa do not accept an exclusive common ancestor beyond existence composed of eukaryotes, and have unlike life cycles, trophic levels, modes of locomotion, and cellular structures.[13] [14]

Examples of protists include:[15]

  • Amoebas (including nucleariids and Foraminifera);
  • choanaflagellates; ciliates;
  • Diatoms;
  • Dinoflagellates;
  • Giardia;
  • Plasmodium (which causes malaria);
  • Oomycetes (including Phytophthora, the cause of the Bang-up Famine of Republic of ireland); and
  • slime molds.

These examples are unicellular, although oomycetes can join to form filaments, and slime molds can aggregate into a tissue-like mass.

In cladistic systems (classifications based on common ancestry), there are no equivalents to the taxa Protista or Protoctista, equally both terms refer to a paraphyletic group that spans the unabridged eukaryotic co-operative of the tree of life. In cladistic classification, the contents of Protista are by and large distributed among various supergroups: examples include the

  • SAR supergroup (of stramenopiles or heterokonts, alveolates, and Rhizaria);
  • Archaeplastida (or Plantae sensu lato);
  • Excavata (which is mostly unicellular flagellates); and
  • Opisthokonta (which commonly includes unicellular flagellates, but also animals and fungi).

"Protista", "Protoctista", and "Protozoa" are therefore considered obsolete. However, the term "protist" continues to exist used informally as a catch-all term for eukaryotic organisms that are not within other traditional kingdoms. For case, the word "protist pathogen" may be used to announce whatever disease-causing organism that is not plant, animal, fungal, prokaryotic, viral, or subviral.[sixteen]

Subdivisions [edit]

The term Protista was first used by Ernst Haeckel in 1866. Protists were traditionally subdivided into several groups based on similarities to the "higher" kingdoms such as:[five]

Protozoa
Protozoans are unicellular "creature-similar" (heterotrophic, and sometimes parasitic) organisms that are further sub-divided based on characteristics such as motility, such every bit the (flagellated) Flagellata, the (ciliated) Ciliophora, the (phagocytic) amoeba, and the (spore-forming) Sporozoa.
Protophyta
Protophyta are "institute-like" (autotrophic) organisms that are composed mostly of unicellular algae. The dinoflagellates, diatoms and Euglena-like flagellates are photosynthetic protists.
Mold
Molds generally refer to fungi; but slime molds and water molds are "fungus-like" (saprophytic) protists, although some are pathogens. Two dissever types of slime molds exist, the cellular and acellular forms.

Some protists, sometimes called ambiregnal protists, take been considered to be both protozoa and algae or fungi (eastward.g., slime molds and flagellated algae), and names for these have been published under either or both of the ICN and the ICZN.[17] [18] Conflicts, such as these – for case the dual-classification of Euglenids and Dinobryons, which are mixotrophic – is an instance of why the kingdom Protista was adopted.

These traditional subdivisions, largely based on superficial commonalities, accept been replaced past classifications based on phylogenetics (evolutionary relatedness amidst organisms). Molecular analyses in modernistic taxonomy have been used to redistribute former members of this group into diverse and sometimes distantly related phyla. For instance, the water molds are now considered to be closely related to photosynthetic organisms such as Chocolate-brown algae and Diatoms, the slime molds are grouped mainly under Amoebozoa, and the Amoebozoa itself includes only a subset of the "Amoeba" group, and pregnant number of erstwhile "Amoeboid" genera are distributed among Rhizarians and other Phyla.

However, the older terms are nonetheless used as informal names to describe the morphology and environmental of various protists. For case, the term protozoa is used to refer to heterotrophic species of protists that do not form filaments.

Nomenclature [edit]

Historical classifications [edit]

Amid the pioneers in the report of the protists, which were almost ignored by Linnaeus except for some genera (east.g., Vorticella, Anarchy, Volvox, Corallina, Conferva, Ulva, Chara, Fucus)[19] [xx] were Leeuwenhoek, O. F. Müller, C. M. Ehrenberg and Félix Dujardin.[21] The first groups used to classify microscopic organism were the Animalcules and the Infusoria.[22] In 1818, the German naturalist Georg August Goldfuss introduced the give-and-take Protozoa to refer to organisms such as ciliates and corals.[23] [5] After the jail cell theory of Schwann and Schleiden (1838–39), this group was modified in 1848 by Carl von Siebold to include just animal-like unicellular organisms, such as foraminifera and amoebae.[24] The formal taxonomic category Protoctista was first proposed in the early on 1860s past John Hogg, who argued that the protists should include what he saw as archaic unicellular forms of both plants and animals. He defined the Protoctista as a "quaternary kingdom of nature", in addition to the and so-traditional kingdoms of plants, animals and minerals.[25] [5] The kingdom of minerals was later removed from taxonomy in 1866 past Ernst Haeckel, leaving plants, animals, and the protists (Protista), defined as a "kingdom of primitive forms".[26] [27]

In 1938, Herbert Copeland resurrected Hogg'due south label, arguing that Haeckel's term Protista included anucleated microbes such as leaner, which the term "Protoctista" (literally significant "first established beings") did non. In contrast, Copeland's term included nucleated eukaryotes such equally diatoms, green algae and fungi.[28] This classification was the ground for Whittaker'southward later on definition of Fungi, Animalia, Plantae and Protista every bit the four kingdoms of life.[viii] The kingdom Protista was afterwards modified to separate prokaryotes into the divide kingdom of Monera, leaving the protists as a group of eukaryotic microorganisms.[six] These v kingdoms remained the accepted classification until the development of molecular phylogenetics in the late 20th century, when it became apparent that neither protists nor monera were unmarried groups of related organisms (they were not monophyletic groups).[29]

Modernistic classifications [edit]

Phylogenetic and symbiogenetic tree of living organisms, showing the origins of eukaryotes

Systematists today do not care for Protista as a formal taxon, merely the term "protist" is however commonly used for convenience in two ways.[thirty] The most pop contemporary definition is a phylogenetic 1, that identifies a paraphyletic group:[31] a protist is whatsoever eukaryote that is not an brute, (state) plant, or (true) fungus; this definition[32] excludes many unicellular groups, like the Microsporidia (fungi), many Chytridiomycetes (fungi), and yeasts (fungi), and besides a non-unicellular grouping included in Protista in the past, the Myxozoa (creature).[33] Some systematists[ who? ] approximate paraphyletic taxa acceptable, and utilise Protista in this sense as a formal taxon (as plant in some secondary textbooks, for pedagogical purpose).[ citation needed ]

The other definition describes protists primarily by functional or biological criteria: protists are essentially those eukaryotes that are never multicellular,[30] that either exist as independent cells, or if they occur in colonies, do non prove differentiation into tissues (only vegetative cell differentiation may occur restricted to sexual reproduction, alternating vegetative morphology, and quiescent or resistant stages, such as cysts);[34] this definition excludes many brown, multicellular blood-red and green algae, which may have tissues.

The taxonomy of protists is still changing. Newer classifications attempt to present monophyletic groups based on morphological (peculiarly ultrastructural),[35] [36] [37] biochemical (chemotaxonomy)[38] [39] and DNA sequence (molecular research) information.[forty] [41] All the same, there are sometimes discordances betwixt molecular and morphological investigations; these can be categorized every bit two types: (i) one morphology, multiple lineages (e.grand. morphological convergence, cryptic species) and (ii) i lineage, multiple morphologies (e.g. phenotypic plasticity, multiple life-cycle stages).[42]

Because the protists as a whole are paraphyletic, new systems frequently carve up or abandon the kingdom, instead treating the protist groups as split lines of eukaryotes. The recent scheme by Adl et al. (2005)[34] does not recognize formal ranks (phylum, class, etc.) and instead treats groups as clades of phylogenetically related organisms. This is intended to make the classification more stable in the long term and easier to update. Some of the main groups of protists, which may be treated as phyla, are listed in the taxobox, upper correct.[43] Many are thought to exist monophyletic, though there is still dubiousness. For example, the Excavata are probably non monophyletic and the chromalveolates are probably just monophyletic if the haptophytes and cryptomonads are excluded.[44]

In 2015 a Higher Level Classification of all Living Organisms was arrived at past consensus with many authors including Cavalier-Smith. This classification proposes two superkingdoms and seven kingdoms. The superkingdoms are those of Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes. The Prokaryotes include 2 kingdoms of Bacteria and Archaea; the Eukaryotes include five kingdoms of Protozoa, Chromista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. The scheme retains xiv taxonomic ranks. Eukaryotic unicellular organisms are referred to as protists.[45]

Metabolism [edit]

Nutrition can vary co-ordinate to the type of protist. Most eukaryotic algae are autotrophic, but the pigments were lost in some groups.[ vague ] Other protists are heterotrophic, and may present phagotrophy, osmotrophy, saprotrophy or parasitism. Some are mixotrophic. Some protists that practise non take / lost chloroplasts/mitochondria accept entered into endosymbiontic relationship with other bacteria/algae to replace the missing functionality. For example, Paramecium bursaria and Paulinella have captured a green alga (Zoochlorella) and a cyanobacterium respectively that human action as replacements for chloroplast. Meanwhile, a protist, Mixotricha paradoxa that has lost its mitochondria uses endosymbiontic leaner equally mitochondria and ectosymbiontic hair-like bacteria (Treponema spirochetes) for locomotion.

Many protists are flagellate, for example, and filter feeding can have place where flagellates observe prey. Other protists can engulf leaner and other food particles, by extending their cell membrane effectually them to grade a food vacuole and digesting them internally in a process termed phagocytosis.

Nutritional types in protist metabolism
Nutritional type Source of free energy Source of carbon Examples
 Photoautotrophs  Sunlight  Organic compounds or carbon fixation  Most algae
 Chemoheterotrophs  Organic compounds  Organic compounds  Apicomplexa, Trypanosomes or Amoebae

For most of import cellular structures and functions of brute and plants, it can exist establish a heritage amid protists.[46]

Reproduction [edit]

Some protists reproduce sexually using gametes, while others reproduce asexually past binary fission.

Some species, for case Plasmodium falciparum, take extremely complex life cycles that involve multiple forms of the organism, some of which reproduce sexually and others asexually.[47] All the same, it is unclear how frequently sexual reproduction causes genetic exchange betwixt different strains of Plasmodium in nature and most populations of parasitic protists may be clonal lines that rarely substitution genes with other members of their species.[48]

Eukaryotes emerged in evolution more than than one.v billion years ago.[49] The earliest eukaryotes were probable protists. Although sexual reproduction is widespread amidst extant eukaryotes, information technology seemed unlikely until recently, that sex could be a primordial and central feature of eukaryotes. A principal reason for this view was that sex activity appeared to be lacking in certain pathogenic protists whose ancestors branched off early on from the eukaryotic family tree. However, several of these protists are at present known to be capable of, or to recently have had the capability for, meiosis and hence sexual reproduction. For example, the common abdominal parasite Giardia lamblia was in one case considered to exist a descendant of a protist lineage that predated the emergence of meiosis and sex. However, G. lamblia was recently constitute to take a core set of genes that office in meiosis and that are widely present amid sexual eukaryotes.[l] These results suggested that G. lamblia is capable of meiosis and thus sexual reproduction. Furthermore, direct evidence for meiotic recombination, indicative of sex, was also plant in G. lamblia.[51]

The pathogenic parasitic protists of the genus Leishmania have been shown to be capable of a sexual cycle in the invertebrate vector, likened to the meiosis undertaken in the trypanosomes.[52]

Trichomonas vaginalis, a parasitic protist, is non known to undergo meiosis, only when Malik et al.[53] tested for 29 genes that function in meiosis, they found 27 to be present, including eight of 9 genes specific to meiosis in model eukaryotes. These findings propose that T. vaginalis may be capable of meiosis. Since 21 of the 29 meiotic genes were also present in G. lamblia, it appears that most of these meiotic genes were likely present in a common ancestor of T. vaginalis and G. lamblia. These two species are descendants of protist lineages that are highly divergent amidst eukaryotes, leading Malik et al.[53] to propose that these meiotic genes were likely nowadays in a common ancestor of all eukaryotes.

Based on a phylogenetic analysis, Dacks and Roger proposed that facultative sex activity was nowadays in the common ancestor of all eukaryotes.[54]

This view was further supported by a report of amoebae by Lahr et al.[55] Amoeba have generally been regarded as asexual protists. Even so, these authors draw bear witness that about amoeboid lineages are anciently sexual, and that the bulk of asexual groups probable arose recently and independently. Early researchers (e.g., Calkins) accept interpreted phenomena related to chromidia (chromatin granules free in the cytoplasm) in amoeboid organisms as sexual reproduction.[56]

Protists by and large reproduce asexually under favorable environmental conditions, but tend to reproduce sexually nether stressful weather, such equally starvation or rut shock.[57] Oxidative stress, which is associated with the production of reactive oxygen species leading to Deoxyribonucleic acid damage, also appears to be an important factor in the induction of sex in protists.[57]

Some commonly found Protist pathogens such as Toxoplasma gondii are capable of infecting and undergoing asexual reproduction in a wide variety of animals – which human action as secondary or intermediate host – merely tin can undergo sexual reproduction only in the master or definitive host (for example: felids such as domestic cats in this case).[58] [59] [60]

Ecology [edit]

Biomass by life form.jpg

Free-living Protists occupy almost whatever environment that contains liquid water. Many protists, such as algae, are photosynthetic and are vital principal producers in ecosystems, peculiarly in the body of water as part of the plankton. Protists brand up a large portion of the biomass in both marine and terrestrial environments.[61]

Other protists include pathogenic species, such equally the kinetoplastid Trypanosoma brucei, which causes sleeping sickness, and species of the apicomplexan Plasmodium, which cause malaria.

Parasitism: role as pathogens [edit]

Some protists are significant parasites of animals (eastward.g.; five species of the parasitic genus Plasmodium cause malaria in humans and many others cause similar diseases in other vertebrates), plants[62] [63] (the oomycete Phytophthora infestans causes late blight in potatoes)[64] or even of other protists.[65] [66] Protist pathogens share many metabolic pathways with their eukaryotic hosts. This makes therapeutic target development extremely difficult – a drug that harms a protist parasite is likewise likely to harm its beast/plant host. A more than thorough understanding of protist biology may allow these diseases to be treated more efficiently. For example, the apicoplast (a nonphotosynthetic chloroplast only essential to carry out of import functions other than photosynthesis) nowadays in apicomplexans provides an attractive target for treating diseases caused past unsafe pathogens such equally plasmodium.

Recent papers accept proposed the use of viruses to treat infections caused by protozoa.[67] [68]

Researchers from the Agricultural Enquiry Service are taking advantage of protists as pathogens to command red imported fire ant (Solenopsis invicta) populations in Argentina. Spore-producing protists such as Kneallhazia solenopsae (recognized as a sis clade or the closest relative to the fungus kingdom now)[69] can reduce red fire pismire populations by 53–100%.[70] Researchers have also been able to infect phorid fly parasitoids of the ant with the protist without harming the flies. This turns the flies into a vector that tin can spread the pathogenic protist between crimson fire ant colonies.[71]

Fossil record [edit]

Many protists have neither hard parts nor resistant spores, and their fossils are extremely rare or unknown. Examples of such groups include the apicomplexans,[72] most ciliates,[73] some green algae (the Klebsormidiales),[74] choanoflagellates,[75] oomycetes,[76] chocolate-brown algae,[77] yellow-green algae,[78] Excavata (e.g., euglenids).[79] Some of these have been plant preserved in amber (fossilized tree resin) or under unusual conditions (e.m., Paleoleishmania, a kinetoplastid).

Others are relatively mutual in the fossil record,[80] as the diatoms,[81] golden algae,[82] haptophytes (coccoliths),[83] silicoflagellates, tintinnids (ciliates), dinoflagellates,[84] light-green algae,[85] blood-red algae,[86] heliozoans, radiolarians,[87] foraminiferans,[88] ebriids and testate amoebae (euglyphids, arcellaceans).[89] Some are even used equally paleoecological indicators to reconstruct ancient environments.

More than likely eukaryote fossils brainstorm to announced at virtually i.8 billion years ago, the acritarchs, spherical fossils of likely algal protists.[90] Another possible representative of early fossil eukaryotes are the Gabonionta.

See too [edit]

  • Development of sexual reproduction
  • Marine protists
  • Protist locomotion
  • Protistology

Footnotes [edit]

  1. ^ a b The get-go eukaryotes were "neither plants, animals, nor fungi", hence as defined, the category protist would include the terminal eukaryotic common ancestor.
  2. ^ Monera eventually became the two domains Bacteria and Archaea.[5]
  3. ^ In the original 4-kingdom model proposed in 1959, Protista included all unicellular microorganisms such as leaner. Herbert Copeland proposed divide kingdoms, Mychota for prokaryotes and Protoctista for eukaryotes (including fungi) that were neither plants nor animals. Copeland'south stardom betwixt prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells was eventually critical in Whittaker proposing a final five-kingdom system, even though he resisted it for over a decade.[eight] [9]

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Bibliography [edit]

Full general [edit]

  • Haeckel, E. Das Protistenreich. Leipzig, 1878.
  • Hausmann, K., North. Hulsmann, R. Radek. Protistology. Schweizerbart'sche Verlagsbuchshandlung, Stuttgart, 2003.
  • Margulis, L., J.O. Corliss, M. Melkonian, D.J. Chapman. Handbook of Protoctista. Jones and Bartlett Publishers, Boston, 1990.
  • Margulis, L., K.V. Schwartz. 5 Kingdoms: An Illustrated Guide to the Phyla of Life on Globe, 3rd ed. New York: W.H. Freeman, 1998.
  • Margulis, L., L. Olendzenski, H.I. McKhann. Illustrated Glossary of the Protoctista, 1993.
  • Margulis, L., M.J. Chapman. Kingdoms and Domains: An Illustrated Guide to the Phyla of Life on Earth. Amsterdam: Bookish Press/Elsevier, 2009.
  • Schaechter, K. Eukaryotic microbes. Amsterdam, Academic Press, 2012.

Physiology, ecology and paleontology [edit]

  • Foissner, W.; D.L. Hawksworth. Protist Diversity and Geographical Distribution. Dordrecht: Springer, 2009
  • Fontaneto, D. Biogeography of Microscopic Organisms. Is Everything Small Everywhere? Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2011.
  • Levandowsky, M. Physiological Adaptations of Protists. In: Jail cell physiology sourcebook : essentials of membrane biophysics. Amsterdam; Boston: Elsevier/AP, 2012.
  • Moore, R. C., and other editors. Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology. Protista, office B (vol. 1 [ permanent dead link ] , Charophyta, vol. two, Chrysomonadida, Coccolithophorida, Charophyta, Diatomacea & Pyrrhophyta), part C (Sarcodina, Chiefly "Thecamoebians" and Foraminiferida) and part D [ permanent dead link ] (Importantly Radiolaria and Tintinnina). Boulder, Colorado: Geological Gild of America; & Lawrence, Kansas: Academy of Kansas Printing.

External links [edit]

  • Tree of Life: Eukaryotes
  • A coffee applet for exploring the new college level classification of eukaryotes
  • Plankton Chronicles – Protists – Cells in the Sea – video
  • Holt, Jack R. and Carlos A. Iudica. (2013). Variety of Life. http://comenius.susqu.edu/biol/202/Taxa.htm. Last modified: 11/18/13.
  • Tsukii, Y. (1996). Protist Information Server (database of protist images). Laboratory of Biology, Hosei University.[1]. Updated: March 22, 2016.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protist

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